Module 1: Introduction to Cultural
1.2. History and development of cultural science

The history of cultural knowledge is the development of the field of cultural studies as a science and its history as a discipline for studying culture and cultural processes. Here are the main stages of the history of cultural knowledge:

Origin and background (19th century)

In the 19th century, it was just beginning to take shape, and many scientists and philosophers contributed to its formation.

One of the most important figures in the history of cultural studies in the 19th century was the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. He believed that culture develops according to certain laws and has its own logic. Hegel proposed the concept of the "zeitgeist", which determines the development of culture.

Zeitgeist (Zeitgeist is an important concept developed by the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. This concept plays an important role in his philosophy and has a significant impact on the understanding of history and culture. Here are the main aspects of Hegel's "zeitgeist" concept:

Historical context: Hegel lived and worked during the Romantic period, when there was an emphasis on individuality and cultural specificity. In this context, he developed the concept of "zeitgeist" to explain the dynamics of historical change.

Spirit (Geist) as a subject: in Hegel's philosophy, "spirit" is not an abstract entity, but rather a subject that develops in the historical process. This spirit unites the collective beliefs, values and ideas of society.

Zeitgeist as a reflection of cultural and historical conditions: Hegel believed that the zeitgeist is a kind of reflection of the collective spiritual life of an epoch. It is the sum of ideals, beliefs, and cultural phenomena specific to a particular era.

The role of dialectics: Hegel used dialectics (the triadic process of thesis-antithesis-synthesis) to explain the development of the zeitgeist. He believed that conflicts and contradictions in history lead to the evolution of the zeitgeist and society as a whole.

Significance for historical philosophy: theconcept of the "zeitgeist" is deeply important for understanding the historical process and the development of culture. Hegel argued that understanding the zeitgeist allows us to understand how and why society changes over time.

Influence on modern thought: the concept of Hegel's "zeitgeist" has influenced many other philosophers and cultural scientists. It continues to be an object of research and discussion in modern philosophy and cultural studies.

In general, Hegel's concept of the" zeitgeist " emphasizes the importance of historical context and cultural factors in the analysis of social and cultural phenomena. It helps you understand how values and ideas evolve and change over different historical periods.

Another important figure was the French philosopher Auguste Comte, who founded the science of sociology. Comte believed that science should study society and culture as a whole. He proposed a theory of three stages of development of society: theological, metaphysical and positive.

Auguste Comte's theory of the development of society, known as sociological positivism, is an idea of the sequential evolutionary development of society through three stages:

Theological stage: at this stage, society explains phenomena and events in the world using religious and metaphysical concepts. Beliefs and superstitions are dominant, and scientific understanding is lacking.

Metaphysical stage: at this stage, metaphysical explanations gradually replace religious ones, but they are still abstract and unfounded. Society is looking for more logical and well-founded explanations of phenomena.

Scientific stage (positive stage): This is the final stage at which society bases its knowledge on scientific principles and methods. Positivism calls for the use of empirical data and observations to understand the world and develop sound theories.

Comte believed that the social sciences should also go through this evolutionary process and move to a scientific method of research. His work has had a significant impact on the development of sociology and methodology of scientific research.

In the 19th century, the first theories of culture also appeared, which explained the development of culture in terms of various factors, such as the economy, religion, social institutions, etc.

For example, Karl Marx proposed the theory of historical materialism, which explains the development of culture by economic factors.

Cultural studies in the XIX century was at the stage of formation, and there were many different theories and concepts explaining the development of culture. Some of them were proposed by German philosophers such as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Ludwig Feuerbach, who believed that culture develops according to its own laws and has a certain logic. Other theories were proposed by English philosophers such as Herbert Spencer and John Stuart Mill, who developed the concepts of evolutionism and social Darwinism, respectively. There have also been various cultural theories that explain the development of culture in terms of various factors, such as economic, religious, social institutions, and others. In general, cultural studies in the 19th century was not yet fully formed as an independent science, and many of the proposed theories and concepts continue to be discussed to this day.

XX century – mid-XX century

In the XX century, cultural studies became more specialized and began to develop in various directions. Such areas as cultural anthropology, social psychology, cultural history and others have emerged. Cultural studies began to be used to study various aspects of culture, such as traditions, customs, art, literature, and others. Also, cultural studies began to study the influence of culture on people's behavior and social processes.

The early 20th century was a period of intensive development of cultural studies, and during this period several important theories and concepts were formulated that had a significant impact on the discipline. Here are some key early theories:

Max Weber and Rationalization: Max Weber explored the role of rationalization and bureaucracy in culture and society. He put forward the concept of the "iron cage" of bureaucracy, which forms modern culture and society.

Max Weber was a German sociologist and philosopher whose theory had a significant impact on sociology and cultural studies. One of his important concepts is the theory of rationalization. New aspects of this theory:

Rational action: Weber divided people's actions into several types, and one of them was "rational action." This means that people act on the basis of reasonable, considered considerations and goals.

Rationalization of society: Weber argued that modern societies are becoming increasingly rational in their organization and functioning. He described the process of rationalization as a process in which traditional, ill-considered practices give way to rational and systematic ways of acting.

The Ethics of Protestantism and the Spirit of Capitalism: One of Weber's most famous works is his study of the influence of Protestant ethics on the development of capitalism. He argued that certain aspects of Protestant ethics, such as the principles of "frugality" and "professional ethics", contributed to the development of capitalism in Western Europe.

The Iron Cage of Bureaucracy: Weber described bureaucracy as a system of rational governance that has become central to modern organizations and societies. He also expressed concern about the" iron cage " of bureaucracy, which can restrict individual freedom and creativity.

Max Weber's theory emphasizes the importance of rationalization and its impact on the development of modern societies. His work remains important for understanding sociocultural processes and the organization of society.

Emile Durkheim and the Sociology of Religion: Durkheim explored the relationship between religion and culture. His work on anomie and religious symbols has influenced the understanding of cultural phenomena.

Emile Durkheim was a French sociologist and philosopher, known for his work in the field of the sociology of religion. His theory of religion contains several key ideas:

Social function of religion: Durkheim believed that religion plays an important social role in society. He argued that religious beliefs and practices contribute to strengthening social solidarity and the integration of individuals into society. Religion helps to establish common values and norms, which in turn contributes to the stability of society.

Totemism: Durkheim studied the Aborigines of Australia and introduced the concept of a "totem" - a symbolic object that society worships. Totemism, in his opinion, is an early form of religion and serves to strengthen group identity and social cooperation.

Sacred and profane: Durkheim introduced the concepts of "sacred" and "profane". The sacred refers to the sacred and religious spheres of life, while the profane refers to everyday and mundane aspects. Religious rites and symbols help to distinguish the sacred from the profane and emphasize its importance.

Anomie: Durkheim also explored the phenomenon of anomie - the loss of social integration and control in society. He believed that religion could play a role in preventing anomie, as it helps strengthen social ties and norms.

Durkheim's theory of religion emphasizes the social dimension of religion and its impact on the structure and stability of society. His work had a significant impact on the development of the sociology of religion and sociology in general.

Herbert Spencer and Evolutionism: The concept that culture evolves from simple forms to more complex ones. Spencer also proposed the idea of a” social organism", according to which society functions as a single organism.

English philosopher Herbert Spencer's concept of cultural evolutionism is the idea that culture evolves from simple and low-level forms to more complex and highly organized ones. This concept is similar to the idea of evolution in biology, but applies to the development of culture and society. Important aspects of this concept are:

Progressive development: Spencer believed that culture was evolving towards higher complexity and organization. This happens through the accumulation of knowledge, technological advances, and sociocultural changes.

He identified various stages of cultural development, starting with primitive forms and moving to more complex and diverse ones. For example, he distinguished between magical, religious, and scientific stages in the development of thinking and explaining phenomena.

Survival of the fittest: Spencer assumed that the cultural elements and practices that best fit the needs and conditions of society would survive and continue to evolve, while the less well-adapted would be discarded.

Comparison with biological evolution: Spencer applied concepts of biological evolution, such as natural selection and adaptation, to the understanding of cultural development.

Spencer's concept has influenced various fields, including sociology, anthropology, and history. However, it has also been criticized for its Eurocentrism and lack of consideration for the diversity of cultures and social practices.

Symbolism and structural Anthropology: The concepts of structural anthropology developed, for example, by Claude Levi-Strauss focused on the analysis of symbols and their role in culture. Structural anthropologists have investigated common structures and patterns in different cultures.

Symbolism in the theory of Claude Levi-Strauss is an important aspect of anthropological research. He sees symbols as key elements of culture that carry hidden meanings and structures of society. Levi-Strauss analyzed symbols, such as myths and religious rites, using the method of structural analysis.

In his approach, symbols are considered as part of a larger system of binary oppositions, where each symbol has its opposite. These binary oppositions help us understand deep structures in the culture. Levi-Strauss argued that symbols and myths express universal patterns of thinking and perception, which are the basis for the formation of cultural and social norms.

Thus, symbolism in the Levi-Strauss theory not only helps to understand specific symbols in culture, but also reveals the deeper structures of thinking and perception that underlie them. This approach continues to influence modern research in the field of cultural studies and anthropology.

Claude Levi-Strauss ' Structural anthropology is a theoretical approach and research methodology developed by the French anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss. This approach is designed to understand and analyze culture and society by identifying hidden structures and patterns underlying various cultural phenomena.

The basic principles of structural anthropology by Claude Levy-Strauss include:

Structuralism: Levi-Strauss believed that culture and society are based on structures that can be analyzed and compared between different cultures. He sought to identify common patterns and patterns.

Myth and symbol: Levi-Strauss paid special attention to the analysis of myths and symbols, considering them key elements of culture. He developed methods for analyzing mythological narratives and symbolic systems.

Binary oppositions: One of Levi-Strauss's main tools was the analysis of binary oppositions, that is, oppositions that he saw as the basis for understanding the structure and symbolism of cultural phenomena.

Cross-cultural comparison: Based on the principles of structuralism, Levi-Strauss compared cultural elements and practices between different cultures to identify common patterns.

Cultural anthropology: In the early 20th century, cultural anthropology, represented by scholars such as Bronislaw Malinowski and Margaret Mead, focused on fieldwork and describing the cultural practices of various societies.

Bronislaw Malinowski and Margaret Mead are two outstanding cultural anthropologists, each of whom has made a significant contribution to the development of this discipline. Let's take a closer look at their contributions:

Bronislaw Malinowski was a Polish anthropologist known for his research in social anthropology and ethnography. He is considered one of the founders of modern anthropology. Malinowski developed the participant-observer method, which assumes that the researcher should actively participate in the cultural group under study in order to better understand their life and customs. He conducted significant research in Trinity Atoll (Melanesia), which led to his work "Argonauts of the Western Pacific". His research methods and emphasis on fieldwork are considered important for contemporary cultural anthropology.

Margaret Mead was a British anthropologist and cultural critic, known for her work on roles and gender in culture. She conducted research in various cultural settings, including New Guinea, and drew attention to the importance of gender and gender in anthropology. Her book "Endless Transformations: Female and male roles" has become a classic in the study of this topic. Meade was also active in the feminist movement and contributed to the analysis of women's roles and social justice.

Both scientists had a significant impact on the development of cultural anthropology and brought new methodologies and perspectives to the study of various aspects of cultures and societies.

Postmodernism (after the 1960s)

Postmodernism is a cultural context that emerged in the mid-twentieth century in Europe and the United States. It is characterized by a critical attitude towards modernist ideals and values such as rationalism, universalism, and progress. Within this context, cultural studies is formed and developed.

In the last decades of the 20th century and in the beginning of the 21st century, postmodernism and cultural studies have become the dominant trends. They attached great importance to cultural diversity, differences and the influence of power on culture.

Post-structuralism: Post-structuralist such as Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Jean-Francois Lyotard criticize the idea that there are universal truths and principles. They argue that culture consists of many discourses and interpretations that are constantly interacting and changing.

Breaking down Metanarratives: Postmodernism rejected the idea of all-encompassing metanarratives, such as Marxism or classical feminism. This has led to the development of theories focusing on multiple histories and perspectives.

Deconstruction: theorists such as Jacques Derrida have developed a method of deconstruction that breaks down texts and ideas into their component parts to reveal their complex relationships and contradictions.

Postcolonialism: in postmodernism has focused on postcolonial studies that examine the impact of colonialism on the cultures and identities of former colonies.

Cultural identities: Researchers such as Stuart Hall have focused on the formation of cultural identities and their variability in the context of migration and multiple cultural contexts.

Mass culture and media: Cultural scientists have studied the impact of mass culture, film, television, and the Internet on society and culture, considering them as means of forming meaning and identity.

Representatives of cultural studies in the postmodern period include names such as Jean-Francois Lyotard, Michel Foucault, Jean Baudrillard, Guy Debord, and Donna Harway. Each of them made an important contribution to the development of cultural studies and helped shape the postmodern paradigm in this field.

The period of multi-disciplinarily (the beginning of the XXI century and our days)

Modern cultural studies have become multidisciplinary, combining elements of anthropology, sociology, philosophy, art history and other fields. She actively explores contemporary cultural phenomena, globalization, and cultural identities.

The period of multidisciplinary in cultural studies, often referred to as the "interdisciplinary approach", became characteristic of the development of this field due to research in the second half of the XX century. This period brought with it a growing interest in how different disciplines can jointly study culture. Here are a few key points:

Mixing of disciplines: Instead of being confined to the traditional framework of a single discipline, researchers have begun to actively combine knowledge from different fields, such as anthropology, sociology, literary studies, art history, and philosophy, in order to better understand culture.

Cross-cultural research: This approach is usually concerned with the study of the interactions and influence of different cultural groups on each other. It requires combining methods and theories from different disciplines to analyze complex cultural processes.

Cultural studies: Cultural studies has become the basis for the development of multidisciplinary cultural research, which involves the use of a variety of methodologies and theories to analyze culture in its various manifestations.

Media and technology: A multidisciplinary approach is particularly relevant when studying the impact of mass media and technology on culture and society, as it requires expertise in both sociology and cultural studies, as well as in information and engineering sciences.

This period of multi-disciplinarily significantly enriched research in the field of culture, allowing researchers to more fully and deeply understand complex phenomena and processes in the world of culture and their interrelationships with other fields of knowledge.

Digital Culture

This stage is characterized by a sharp impact of digital technologies on culture, society and communications. Important moments in this period include the development of the Internet, social media, virtual reality, artificial intelligence and other digital innovations that have changed the way people perceive, share information and create. Digital cultural studies examine the impact of these technologies on cultural phenomena, art, communication, and identity.

There are many outstanding representatives in the field of digital cultural studies. Here are a few of them:

Lev Manovich is a well-known cultural critic and author of the book "The Language of New Media", which explores the impact of digital technologies on culture and art.

Sherry Turkle is the author of Living Online: Identity in the Age of the Internet, which explores digital identity and social media.

Howard Rheingold is a writer and researcher who focuses on digital culture, online communities, and digital media culture.

Jameson Lang is the author of New Media: Key Concepts, in which he analyzes the main concepts and terms associated with digital culture.

Donna Harway is a well-known feminist and cultural scholar who studies cyberfeminism and the gender dimensions of digital culture.

These and other researchers have made significant contributions to understanding and analyzing digital culture and its impact on modern society.