Module 3: Developmental Psychology
3.1. Childhood development

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of changes in behavior and mental processes from conception to death. It examines how and why a person changes throughout their life.

Many scientists and researchers have made significant contributions to developmental psychology. Some of the most famous ones are:

1.   Jean Piaget-developed a theory of cognitive development, suggesting several stages in the development of children's thinking.

2.   Erik Erikson-introduced the theory of psychosocial development, according to which a person goes through a series of crises or stages throughout life.

3.   Lev Vygotsky-focused on the socio-cultural context of development and the role of learning in cognitive development.

4.   ЗSigmund Freud-founded the psychoanalytic theory of development, focusing on the role of unconscious desires and conflicts.

These are just a few of the many scientists who have contributed to this field of psychology.

When studying developmental psychology, especially in children and adolescents, it is worth paying attention to the age periodization of Elkonin.

Периодизация возраста по Elkonin age periodization is an approach to studying the mental development of children, proposed by the Russian psychologist Lev Vasilyevich Elkonin. He identified the following main periods in the child's mental development:

Early childhood era (0-3 years)

1.   Newborn period (0 – 1,5/2 months)

• Social situation of development: complete biological dependence on the mother

• Leading activity: emotional communication

• Central neoplasm: formation of individual mental life. Other neoplasms: Revival Complex

This era begins with the neonatal crisis. The crisis is generated by the contradiction between the complete helplessness of the child and his dependence on a close adult, on the one hand, and the lack of ready-made forms of communication, on the other. Resolution of the crisis occurs by 2 months and is associated with the emergence of individual mental life and the need for communication (revival complex).

2.   Infancy period (2 months-1 year)

• Social development situation: connectedness, "fusion" of the child with the mother, all forms of activity of the infant are mediated by the adult; the child is interwoven into the activity of the caring adult. This development situation is called the "Right" situation.

• Leading activities: direct emotional communication with an adult (motivational sphere)

• Neoplasms: walking, emotionally charged performances, discovering your physical Self (understanding your appearance in the mirror), highlighting yourself in the world of people.

Distinguish early and late infancy. In early infancy, the main form of communication is situational-personal, and perception develops mainly. In late infancy, situational-business communication appears and more development occurs in the field of motor functions (locomotor and manual actions).

The period of infancy ends with a crisis of one year. The child does not yet have the necessary operational and technical means to carry out activities that correspond to their formed motives. The child creates a basis for distinguishing himself in the world of people, motives become autonomous.

3.   Early childhood period (1-3 years)

• Social development situation: the disintegration of the"Right", the appearance of relative independence and autonomy in movement, the growing interest in objects leads to the need to change the usual means of communication, the adult is now perceived not as an intermediary between the child and the surrounding world, but as an assistant in their interaction.

• Leading activities: subject-tool system, interaction with objects as social tools (operational and technical sphere).

• Neoplasms: speech; discovery of oneself as a subject of activity-the desire to independently perform the activity that an adult performs, the appearance of the pronoun "I"; a sense of pride in one's achievements.

The period of early childhood is also divided into two phases, the border between which passes approximately at the age of 1.5-1.8 years. In the first phase, the child'sexpressive speech mainly develops (words and object names are learned), and in the second phase, the primary development occurs in the sphere of expressive speech (the child begins to speak words, tries to build sentences, that is, he uses speech to interact with other people). Early age (and the era of early childhood, respectively) ends with the crisis of 3 years — the crisis of "I-myself". The child opens himself up as a subject of activity, so during the crisis there is a restructuring of the relationship between the child and the adult in favor of greater autonomy of the child. This crisis has vivid symptoms: negativism, stubbornness, obstinacy, self-will, devaluation of adults, the desire for despotism.

Epoch of childhood (3-11 years old)

1.   Pre-school period (3-7 years)

• Social development situation: disintegration of joint activity with an adult; adult behavior acts as a model that is modeled by a child in joint activity with a peer.

• Leading activities: plot-role-playing game (motivational-потребностнаяneed sphere).

• Neoplasms: overcoming egocentrism, assimilation of the first ethical categories of good and evil, development of arbitrary behavior, formation of visual and imaginative thinking, the emergence of a primary hierarchy of motives, the discovery of oneself as a carrier of the inner world, the emergence of the inner position of the student (high cognitive motivation, desire to learn), the sign-symbolic function of consciousness (the ability to use one subject as a substitute another).

The transition from preschool to the next period is due to overcoming the crisis of 7 years. This crisis is associated with the formation of internal experiences that mediate the child's attitude to the world. The main symptoms of the crisis:

• loss of spontaneity: there is additional thinking about the consequences of their actions, their feelings and desires do not correspond to behavior, the child has secrets.

• mannerism: the child in some situations begins to play a certain role, portraying something of himself.

• the phenomenon of "bitter candy": the motive for following the rules becomes stronger than the motive for getting what you want. The child may not be happy about what he received dishonestly.

2.   Primary school age (7-11 years)

• Social development situation: a change in the child's habitual form of life, the emergence of a new adult-a social adult. Two lines of relationship development: "child-close adult" and "child-social adult".

• Leading activities: educational, aimed at mastering universal methods of action in the system of scientific concepts (operational and technical sphere).

• Neoplasms: keywords: arbitrariness of mental processes, reflection, planning, will formation, intellectualization of mental functions, sign mediation of mental processes, theoretical thinking.

This period (and the era of childhood) ends with the crisis of 12 years. There is a change in the child's self-image due to the onset of puberty and the appearance of the ability to reflect on their feelings and actions.

The age of adolescence (12-17 years old)

3.   МEarly adolescence (12-15 years)

• Social development situation: A common characteristic is the expansion of the sphere of social activity and changing relationships with teachers, peers, and parents. The transition to secondary school is accompanied by an increase in the number and diversity of teachers with whom it is necessary to build relationships; relationships with peers go beyond educational activities. Adolescent communities are formed in which the norms of social life and moral norms of regulating relationships are mastered. 

• Leading activities: intimate and personal communication aimed at knowing the other person, yourself, interpersonal relationships, and mastering the norms of social behavior (motivational and need sphere).

• Neoplasms: the feeling of adulthood, the emergence of personal reflection, and on its basis self-consciousness, the discovery of one's "I".

The crisis of 15 years is connected with the need to change your place in society in connection with a new understanding of yourself. A teenager at this age has a desire to see himself as an adult, he wants to be treated as an adult, and his parents (and other adults in the environment) are not yet ready for this.

4.   Older teens (15-17 years)

• Social development situation: a change in the nature of educational activities, it takes on the character of self-education activities, a teenager among a variety of sections, courses, possible professions, tutors and hobbies is facing a professional choice.

• Leading activities: educational and professional, which involves mastering the system of scientific concepts within the framework of preliminary professional self-determination, the acquisition of professional knowledge and skills (operational and technical sphere).

• Neoplasms: professional and personal self-determination, a system of value orientations.

The era of adolescence ends with the crisis of 17 years, which is associated with the entry of a person into adulthood, a change in lifestyle, type of activity, and social circle.

Identifying common patterns of development after the age of 17 is very difficult due to the huge variety of life paths that a person can choose.

These are general guidelines, and the mental development of each child can occur individually.

Developmental psychology in childhood

Childhood is one of the most important and interesting periods in a person's life. During this period, there is intense physical, cognitive, emotional and social development. In this lecture, we will look at the key aspects of childhood development and what factors affect it.

Physical development
In childhood, the body is actively developing in physiological terms, some important points:

1.   Growth and development of the bone system: In childhood, there is an intensive growth and development of bones. This process continues until the end of adolescence.

2.   Brain development: The child's brain is actively growing and developing. This period is important for the formation of neural connections and mental development.

3.   Cardiovascular system: The heart and blood vessels develop, growing in size and strengthening.

4.   Respiratory system: The development of the lungs allows the child to better adapt to the environment.

Feature development

1.   Digestion: Children develop the ability to digest solid foods and absorb essential nutrients.

2.   Immune system: During childhood, the immune system becomes stronger, which helps fight off infections.

3.   Sensory systems: The development of vision, hearing, touch and other sensory systems plays an important role in the perception of the world around us.

Cognitive development

1.   Sensory perception

The first thing that begins cognitive development is sensory perception. Newborn babies first learn the world through sensation. They see, hear, and feel, and this becomes the basis for further development. For example, children begin to distinguish between different sounds and respond to them.

2.   Development of motor skills

The next stage is the development of motor skills. Babies begin to move their limbs, and this is important for developing their coordination and understanding of space. Later, they will learn to crawl, walk, and run, which opens up new opportunities for them to explore the world.

3.   Language development

One of the most important aspects of cognitive development is language development. Children begin to develop an interest in sounds and words as early as infancy. Gradually, they learn to understand and use words for communication. Language development strongly affects children's ability to express their thoughts and understand the world around them.

4.   Developing abstract thinking

With age, children begin to develop the ability to think abstractly. They can solve problems that are not directly related to perception, such as solving puzzles or analyzing abstract concepts. This is due to the development of the anterior part of the brain.

5.   Developing social skills

An important aspect of cognitive development is the development of social skills. Children learn to understand the emotions of others, develop the ability to cooperate and resolve conflicts. Social skills play a key role in shaping a child's personality.

Cognitive development in childhood is a complex and multifaceted process. It covers many aspects, starting with sensory perception and ending with the development of higher cognitive functions. Understanding this process will help us better understand and support our children's development, creating an enabling environment for them to learn and grow.

Emotional development

Emotions play an important role in children's development:

• Emotion Recognition: Children learn to recognize their own emotions and those of others.

• Emotion regulation: Develops the ability to control your emotions, which is important for social adaptation.

Social development

Interaction with the outside world plays a key role:

• Family and peers: Interacting with family and peers builds social skills and values.

• Social norms training: Children learn the rules and expectations of society.

• Communication development: Children improve their communication skills and learn to collaborate.

Children's development is a complex and multifaceted process that depends on many factors. Understanding this process helps parents, educators, and psychologists provide support and encourage children to develop in the best possible way.

We strongly recommend that you engage in all-round development of the child in order to develop it, and not to achieve personal heights. Psychologists recommend enrolling children in 2-3 groups that can cover several of the child's needs: physical, hedonistic, and aesthetic.

The child needs to vent the accumulated energy, otherwise, it can transform into aggression or whims, the nature of which the child himself does not fully understand. Also, children need to fulfill a hedonistic need, which is realized in the game and can combine a splash of physical energy. The child also needs to be developed aesthetically, as it enriches the emotional experience, emotional sphere, morality, and increases cognitive activity. The result of such education is aesthetic development. Aesthetic education also brings the child closer to the reality of life, to the desire to transform the world around them, society, and nature.